Bridging the Gap: Teacher Self-Efficacy and Inclusive Education Implementation in Cambodia
Abstract
This study examined teachers' disability-inclusive education background and its relationship with self-efficacy in instruction, collaboration, and managing behaviour within the Cambodian context. Employing a mixed methods design, quantitative data were collected from 533 teachers (403 general education, 130 special education) across five provinces using an 18-item self-efficacy questionnaire, whilst qualitative secondary data underwent SWOT analysis. Statistical analyses including Confirmatory Factor Analysis, Structural Equation Modelling, and independent samples t-tests were conducted using SPSS AMOS Version 29. Results revealed significant positive relationships between teachers' self-efficacy dimensions and both disability-inclusive education background and implementation outcomes. Special education teachers demonstrated significantly higher self-efficacy in instruction (M = 3.10 vs 2.54, p < .001) and collaboration (M = 3.02 vs 2.59, p < .001) compared to general education teachers. However, 47 per cent of teachers reported no inclusive education training, whilst 35 per cent had no experience teaching children with disabilities. SWOT analysis identified supportive policies and increased awareness as strengths, but revealed critical weaknesses including inadequate training and negative staff attitudes. These findings underscore urgent need for systematic professional development interventions to enhance teacher self-efficacy and advance Cambodia's inclusive education implementation aligned with the Inclusive Education Action Plan 2024-2028.
References
ACCESS. (2024). Enhancing Disability Inclusion, Equity and Rights in Cambodia: a resource for action. https://access2cambodia.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/ACCESS 2-Enhancing DI in Cambodia_Final_Eng_19Nov2024.pdf
Aprillia, M. (2023). PARENTAL EXPERIENCES IN AUTISM CHILDREARING. SUJANA (Education and Learning Review), 2(3), 23–37. https://doi.org/10.56943/sujana.v2i3.385
Baier, F., Maurer, C., Dignath, C., & Kunter, M. (2021). Fostering pre-service teachers’ theoretical knowledge application: studying with and without text-based cases. Instructional Science, 49(6), 855–876. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11251-021-09560-7
Bandura, A. (1977). Social Learning Theory. In Social Learning Theory. Prentice-Hall.
Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. Worth Publishers.
Beckett, A. E. (2009). ‘Challenging disabling attitudes, building an inclusive society’: considering the role of education in encouraging non‐disabled children to develop positive attitudes towards disabled people. British Journal of Sociology of Education, 30(3), 317–329. https://doi.org/10.1080/01425690902812596
Bunbury, S. (2019). Unconscious bias and the medical model: How the social model may hold the key to transformative thinking about disability discrimination. International Journal of Discrimination and the Law, 19(1), 26–47. https://doi.org/10.1177/1358229118820742
Charitaki, G., Kourti, I., Gregory, J. L., Ozturk, M., Ismail, Z., Alevriadou, A., Soulis, S.-G., Kypriotaki, M., Sakici, Ş., & Demirel, C. (2025). A comparative analysis of teachers’ attitudes towards including all students in six countries. Educational Research and Evaluation, 30(1–2), 74–114. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803611.2024.2406516
Creswell, J. W., & Guetterman, T. C. (2024). Educational research : planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research. Pearson Education.
Creswell, J. W., & Inoue, M. (2025). A process for conducting mixed methods data analysis. Journal of General and Family Medicine, 26(1), 4–11. https://doi.org/10.1002/jgf2.736
Degener, T. (2016). Disability in a Human Rights Context. Laws, 5(3), 35. https://doi.org/10.3390/laws5030035
Dell’Anna, S., Pellegrini, M., Ianes, D., & Vivanet, G. (2022). Learning, Social, and Psychological Outcomes of Students with Moderate, Severe, and Complex Disabilities in Inclusive Education: A Systematic Review. International Journal of Disability, Development and Education, 69(6), 2025–2041. https://doi.org/10.1080/1034912X.2020.1843143
Dignath, C., Rimm-Kaufman, S., van Ewijk, R., & Kunter, M. (2022). Teachers’ Beliefs About Inclusive Education and Insights on What Contributes to Those Beliefs: a Meta-analytical Study. Educational Psychology Review, 34(4), 2609–2660. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-022-09695-0
Donath, J. L., Lüke, T., Graf, E., Tran, U. S., & Götz, T. (2023). Does Professional Development Effectively Support the Implementation of Inclusive Education? A Meta-Analysis. Educational Psychology Review, 35(1), 30. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-023-09752-2
EK, E. (2023). Inclusive Education for Children with Disabilities in Cambodia: Progress, Challenges, and Ways Forward. In Innovations and challenges in Cambodian education: Youth’s perspectives. Cambodian Education Forum.
Fairbrother, M., Specht, J., Delorey, J., Whitley, J., Ismailos, L., & Villella, M. (2025). Integrating Practice and Theory in Teacher Education: Enhancing Pre-Service Self-Efficacy for Inclusive Education. Education Sciences, 15(4), 497. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci15040497
Goodley, D. (2020). Disability and Other Human Questions. Emerald Publishing Limited. https://doi.org/10.1108/9781839827044
Hayes, A. M., & Bulat, J. (2017). Disabilities Inclusive Education Systems and Policies Guide for Low- and Middle-Income Countries. https://doi.org/10.3768/rtipress.2017.op.0043.1707
Jardinez, M. J., & Natividad, L. R. (2024). The The Advantages and Challenges of Inclusive Education: Striving for Equity in the Classroom. Shanlax International Journal of Education, 12(2), 57–65. https://doi.org/10.34293/education.v12i2.7182
Kannaby, A. H. (2025). INSTRUCTIONAL COHERENCE, SUBNATIONAL GOVERNANCE, AND ECONOMIC COMPETITIVENESS: A VIETNAM-INDONESIA COMPARISON. SUJANA (Education and Learning Review), 4(3), 23–39. https://doi.org/10.56943/sujana.v4i3.885
Kefallinou, A., Symeonidou, S., & Meijer, C. J. W. (2020). Understanding the value of inclusive education and its implementation: A review of the literature. PROSPECTS, 49(3–4), 135–152. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11125-020-09500-2
Kuroda, K., Kartika, D., & Kitamura, Y. (2017). Implications for Teacher Training and Support for Inclusive Education in Cambodia: An Empirical Case Study in a Developing Country (148).
Lawson, A., & Beckett, A. E. (2021). The social and human rights models of disability: towards a complementarity thesis. The International Journal of Human Rights, 25(2), 348–379. https://doi.org/10.1080/13642987.2020.1783533
Long, Y., Sharma, U., & Subban, P. (2025). Teachers’ attitudes and self-efficacy toward inclusive education in mainland China: a meta-analysis. Cogent Education, 12(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2025.2526872
Moore, A. A. (2021). Life After High School for Students With Moder e After High School for Students With Moderate to Severe Disabilities: An Assessment of Postsecondary Preparedness . Gardner-Webb University.
Muhammad, A. E. (2025). Validating the Teachers’ Attitudes Towards Inclusive Education scale: A psychometric study with pre‐service teachers. British Journal of Special Education, 52(4), 523–538. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8578.70041
NIS. (2013). Cambodia Inter-censal Population Survey 2013: Final Report.
NIS. (2020). General population census of the Kingdom of Cambodia 2019: National report on final census results.
Oo, Z. W., Adams, D., Pov, S., & Nguyen, N. (2025). Shaping leadership and inclusive education: insights from Cambodia, Myanmar, and Vietnam. International Journal of Developmental Disabilities, 71(6), 824–836. https://doi.org/10.1080/20473869.2025.2504444
Pov, S., & Kawai, N. (2025). Pre‐service teachers’ preparation for inclusive practices in Cambodia: Experience, self‐efficacy and concerns about inclusion. Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs, 25(1), 118–131. https://doi.org/10.1111/1471-3802.12715
Pov, S., Kawai, N., & Hayashida, M. (2026). Leading Inclusive Schools in Cambodia: Principals’ Concerns and Training Needs to Support Inclusive Practices. Journal of Research on Leadership Education, 21(1), 70–90. https://doi.org/10.1177/19427751251351311
Ravet, J., & Mtika, P. (2024). Educational inclusion in resource-constrained contexts: a study of rural primary schools in Cambodia. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 28(1), 16–37. https://doi.org/10.1080/13603116.2021.1916104
Retief, M., & Letšosa, R. (2018). Models of disability: A brief overview. HTS Teologiese Studies / Theological Studies, 74(1). https://doi.org/10.4102/hts.v74i1.4738
Ruijs, N. M., & Peetsma, T. T. D. (2009). Effects of inclusion on students with and without special educational needs reviewed. Educational Research Review, 4(2), 67–79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2009.02.002
Shakespeare, T. (2018). Disability: The Basics (1st Edition). Routledge.
Sharma, U., Sokal, L., Wang, M., & Loreman, T. (2021). Measuring the use of inclusive practices among pre-service educators: A multi-national study. Teaching and Teacher Education, 107, 103506. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2021.103506
Szumski, G., Smogorzewska, J., & Karwowski, M. (2017). Academic achievement of students without special educational needs in inclusive classrooms: A meta-analysis. Educational Research Review, 21, 33–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2017.02.004
Tafa, E., & Manolitsis, G. (2003). Attitudes of Greek parents of typically developing kindergarten children towards inclusive education. European Journal of Special Needs Education, 18(2), 155–171. https://doi.org/10.1080/0885625032000078952
Tschannen-Moran, M., Hoy, A. W., & Hoy, W. K. (1998). Teacher Efficacy: Its Meaning and Measure. Review of Educational Research, 68(2), 202–248. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543068002202
UNCR. (2016). General comment No. 4 on Article 24 - the right to inclusive education. https://www.ohchr.org/en/documents/general-comments-and-recommendations/general-comment-no-4-article-24-right-inclusive
UNESCO. (2020). Global Education Monitoring Report 2020: Inclusion and education: All means all. Paris. UNESCO. https://doi.org/10.54676/JJNK6989
UNICEF. (2024). Cambodia Starts Five-Year Inclusive Education Plan to Ensure Quality Education for All Children, Including Those with Disabilities. https://www.unicef.org/cambodia/press-releases/cambodia-starts-five-year-inclusive-education-plan-ensure-quality-education-all
United Nations. (2006). United Nations Treaty Collection. In Treaty Series (Vol. 2515, p. 3).
United Nations. (2015). Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.
WHO. (2011). WORLD REPORT ON DISABILITY. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789241564182
Wilson, C., Marks Woolfson, L., & Durkin, K. (2020). School environment and mastery experience as predictors of teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs towards inclusive teaching. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 24(2), 218–234. https://doi.org/10.1080/13603116.2018.1455901
Woodcock, S., & Hardy, I. (2025). Teacher self-efficacy, inclusion and professional development practices: cultivating a learning environment for all. Professional Development in Education, 51(5), 890–904. https://doi.org/10.1080/19415257.2023.2267058
World Bank. (2024). How social accountability improved access to education for Cambodia’s children with disabilities. https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2024/03/26/how-social-accountability-improved-access-to-education-for-cambodia-s-children-with-disabilities
Yada, A., Leskinen, M., Savolainen, H., & Schwab, S. (2022). Meta-analysis of the relationship between teachers’ self-efficacy and attitudes toward inclusive education. Teaching and Teacher Education, 109, 103521. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2021.103521
Zedalis, M. (2025). TEACHER ROLE, TRAINING, EXPERIENCE, AND SELF-EFFICACY TOWARD THE INCLUSION OF STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES [St. John’s University]. https://scholar.stjohns.edu/theses_dissertations/883